Performance Management †HR

Execution Management †HR Free Online Research Papers Execution Management Conceptual The paper looks to show that Effective Performance Management has become the center of Human Resources and is renewing, reenergizing and reviving HR. The difficulties looked by the current day association are comprehensively talked about under the viability of its exhibition the board frameworks, which at last goes about as an impetus for worker commitment and their compelling presentation. This paper investigates through its discoveries another exhibition the executives framework for improving by and large hierarchical execution by and large, through designing new measurement for compelling individual exhibitions in explicit. A structure is created for the execution of compelling execution the board in any association. This paper is expressly coordinated towards different boundaries for stimulating HR and serves fascinating something worth mulling over for the future administrators managing execution the executives. Presentation Execution the executives, as relating to human asset the executives (HRM), is the way toward conveying continued accomplishment to organizations’ by improving capacities of people and groups. It underpins the philosophical rule that individuals and not capital furnish organizations’ with an upper hand. Notwithstanding, execution the board presents extreme difficulties as far as viable usage. Past investigations have generally neglected to beat a considerable lot of the hierarchical imperatives on its effective usage. Defeating boundaries to change is particularly significant given their cozy relationship to the satisfaction of the mental agreement and related HRM frameworks (reward, advancement, and so on.). The mental agreement build comprises of the presence of a â€Å"soft† set of desires held by the worker, which must be sorted out and overseen. Inside the relationship characterized by these builds, the business and the representative educate, arrange, screen and afterward re-arrange (or leave) the work relationship. Accordingly, if the worker feels that an exhibition the board approach penetrates or damages their mental agreement desires this can prompt an irreversible breakdown in the business relationship. Cautious usage of execution apparatuses is thusly urgent to their prosperity as supporters of authoritative turn of events. Execution Management as a center of HR Execution examinations, execution surveys, evaluation shapes; anything we desire to call them, let’s call them gone. As an independent, an exhibition examination is generally loathed, after all what number of individuals in any association need to hear that they were not exactly flawless a year ago or what number of chiefs need to confront the contention and lessen resolve that can result from the presentation evaluation process. In the event that the genuine objective of the presentation examination is worker advancement and hierarchical improvement, we consider moving to compelling execution the board framework. There has been a change in outlook in the focal point of HR from the good 'ol days where craftspeople composed societies utilizing solidarity to improve working conditions. Organizations in today’s period center around execution of workers which thus helps the organization’s execution. Most likely that powerful execution the board has become a center of HR. Execution the executives to help authoritative change A definitive serious resource of any association is its kin, therefore associations ought to create worker capabilities in a way lined up with the organization’s business objectives. This can be accomplished through execution the executives frameworks, which go about as both conduct change apparatus and empowering influence of execution the executives framework improved authoritative execution through being instrumental in driving change. This would then be able to be standardized through authoritative arrangements, frameworks and structures. Execution the executives plans to underscore and empower wanted and esteemed practices, in this manner is a key apparatus of correspondence and inspiration inside associations looking for a serious edge through key change and control. A visionary presentation the board at that point turns into a framework for deciphering authoritative aim and desire energetically and results, conveying a vital objective, for example, conduct change. The framework likewise carries center to authoritative change and improvement, especially in regards to skills. At the point when competency profiles bolster organization objectives, they become instrumental in building up the HR important to convey business objectives. Subsequently, execution the board framework is a significant apparatus for imparting needs and for giving criticism to invigorate representatives to meet the new desires. Job and significance of powerful execution the executives framework Changing individual representative conduct lies at the core of authoritative change programs. This is on the grounds that they disregard or abuse set up change brain science standards. Senior administration can accept that since they are prepared to star effectively grasp change, their workers will be similarly ace dynamic. Be that as it may, forcing activity on representatives who are not readied brings about clash. Commonly, just 20 percent of representatives in associations are set up to make positive move because of progress activities. In excess of 70 percent of new key activities fizzle for this reason.4 Thus, to be fruitful in forming conduct, execution the board frameworks must accomplish acknowledgment by those being â€Å"managed†. Present day associations need to react all the more viably to changing outer and inside situations, and hierarchical learning has become a significant key core interest. By envisioning and reacting to changes in the earth through proactive learning mediations, a few associations are advancing into learning associations. Regardless, the topic of how to best change practices through authoritative learning and improvement remains. Truly, many change activities come up short on the grounds that either hierarchical culture isn't prepared to change around then, or in light of the fact that they don't envision the effect of progress on human frameworks. Activities in the last classification regularly bring about obstruction and eventually disappointment of the change activity. As referenced before, one strategy that associations can use to influence representative abilities in a way lined up with the organization’s change is to create hearty execution the executives frameworks. Examination of execution the board as far as key outcome region KRA’s allude to general regions of results or yields for which a job is mindful. The KRA’s ought to be obviously characterized. Once, the KRA’s are characterized the individual can graph a procedure to accomplish the KRA’s. KRA’s are otherwise called Key Work Output’s (KWO’s). A viable presentation the executives framework can encourage change and advancement by both showing their relationship with the general technique, and by supporting and observing the advancement towards accomplishing a definitive objective. It is in this manner a critically significant instrument for imparting needs and for giving input on employees’ commitments towards accomplishing hierarchical objectives. The motivation behind the exhibition the board framework is to guarantee that the work performed by representatives is as per the built up destinations of the organization. Representatives ought to have an away from of the quality and amount of work anticipated from them and at the same time gets progressing data about how successfully they are remaining concerning the measures/benchmarks. Open doors for worker improvement are distinguished and representative execution that doesn't satisfy guidelines is properly tended to. Additionally a usable exhibition the board framework comprises of a procedure for conveying worker execution desires, keeping up execution the executives discoursed and leading yearly execution examinations. It is a system for empowering and encouraging worker improvement and settling execution pay debates. Execution the board framework fills a vital need since they help interface representative exercises with the organization’s crucial objectives. It fills in as a reason for business choices to advance extraordinary entertainers, to prepare, move or order others, and to grant merit increments. Information seeing representative execution can fill in as rules in HR research. They can help build up targets for preparing programs. At long last, execution the executives framework permits associations to keep legitimate records to report HR choices and lawful prerequisites. An examination directed on BSE recorded organizations uncovered the four key outcome regions that are basic for any exhibition the board framework and how every one of these zones which has various measurements, can be estimated by key execution markers. The four key outcome zones are as per the following: I. Creating outer relationship: The PMS ought to think about the three key presentation pointers while considering representative execution to accomplish the KRA of creating outside relationship: right off the bat, legally binding understandings for example overseeing strategy and techniques for understandings which are actualized and surveyed yearly and taking care of significant examination contracts restored with partners. Furthermore, to make new vital partnerships, for example, its prosperity can be estimated by looking into yearly the quantity of contender or teammate investigation attempted and new joint efforts built up and created lastly to create lines of correspondence, for example, quarterly assessing, the visits made by the investors and data about examination and training exercises gave to partners in composed and electronic arrangement. Conveying this Idea to representatives and assessing their dedication levels through organized boundaries will help in accomplishing

The Importance of Clarity in Writing Essay -- Writing Style Styles Ess

The Importance of Clarity in Writing To compose a decent paper is there a mystical formula to follow? In the event that there is you won't discover it in these two books; Williams' Style: Toward Clarity and Grace and Strunk and White's The Elements of Style. What you will discover is the components that ought to be available to have an effective paper. Of the considerable number of styles notice however, one appears to stand out increasingly then the others. This is the component of Clarity. What is lucidity, you might be inquiring? It is essentially the way toward making your paper understood to the target group of your content. This may sound excessively simple and the vast majority of us likely think our papers are in every case clear, after all we recognize what we are stating in them. The inquiry is, does every other person? Both Williams and Strunk and White notice clearness and the significance it plays in the content we read. Williams call attention to that when we go over a sentence that isn't clear our first response is yuck. He proceeds to state, we don't depict sentences on the page; we portray how we feel about them. (17) When I resulted in these present circumstances entry, I had never thought of it that way. I had consistently accused the entry here and there on the off chance that I didn't get it. I wouldn't hope to perceive any reason why it wasn't clear, however would think what a horrendous sentence, not understanding that it isn't the sentence that is dreadful, yet its clearness. It is lucidity that makes our sentences sound right, which thus will make our sections sound right and afterward our whole paper. In the event that we don't have clearness, at that point it won't make any difference what we expound on, on the grounds that there will be no understanding in it. This is the reason we have to follow two straightforward standards as per Williams. These standards are (1) subjects of your sentence should name the characters and (2) ... ...en. This permits the peruser to not feel lost in your paper and will make it progressively cleared to the individuals who know little regarding the matter. Lucidity is only one of numerous components Williams and Strunk and White secured. I trust it is the most significant one however, on the grounds that without lucidity, it doesn't make a difference what your paper is finished. You could discover a fix to a destructive ailment, yet in the event that it isn't clear it will never be found. It will rather speak to numerous lines of words that don't stream together. You may keep the entirety of different standards set out by Strunk and White, yet it should be coherent. Lucidity is the thing that makes content comprehensible, even pleasant and permits a book to succeed. Works Cited Williams, Joseph. Style: Toward Clarity and Grace. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990. Strunk, William, and E.B. White. The Elements of Style. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

Under the Dome

Under the Dome Ok, so you know how Chris is always talking about free food? Well, I seem to have a thing already for free events at MIT. Ill cut to the chase. On April 30th, from 11am â€" 4pm, MIT will be offering 160 different FREE activities as part of its day long Open House (also the kick-off event to the Cambridge Science Festival) What kind of free things you ask? How about a puzzle hunt at the MIT Museum written specially for MITs 150th anniversary by members of the National Puzzlers League Or an exhibit of cameras that look around a corner, and a “glasses free’ 3D display at the Media Lab, or a bunch of physics demonstrations. I also hear there will be blimp racing somewhere? Oh, and glass blowing! I caught a glimpse of artists in action on one of my first days wandering around the basement corridors of the infinite. Check out Peter Houk”s beautiful glass creations. There isn”t much left I can get my teenagers to do with me on a Saturday anymore. My soon to be 18-yr-old will be on the am airwaves with his teen radio show at 9:30 am. And after that, I”ll be chillin, mom. But I”m dragging my skateboarding, gauge-wearing, artsy younger teen to the Glass lab for sure. A day of science? Seriously, mom? “No, not just Science. Only a day at one of the coolest institutions in the world, with your very cool mom, how about that huh?’ “Please?’ “Oh come on, I”ll also buy you a burrito.’ Ok. Hmmm. So maybe Chris has it right after all. It is all about the free food. **So if you think you may be going too, be sure to register with us. I”ll see you there.

Critical Reflection Of Sustainability On Sustainability Essay

Critical Reflection of Sustainability The main point I have come to while thinking about my personal point of view on sustainability is that we have not reached it yet. Science has proved that humans have significantly altered this earth to the point where we are now entering an anthropocene, and we are not slowing down. Given this, I feel that we should recognize what sustainability is to us now, but that we should focus on what it should be and how to reach that state of sustainability. During our lectures in class, we discussed Buckminster Fuller’s Comprehensive Anticipatory Design Science which is the ideal process in order to continually reach sustainability milestones through design. The first step is to define what the problem is, whether it be too much waste, not enough energy, or an unmet demand for an eco friendly product. Next would be to define what the ideal state would be. This will help you determine whether or not you reach your goal, and keep track your progress. After determining where you want t o be, you need to determine your present state so that you know what you have to work with while trying to reach your goal. Moving forward, you would choose a preferred system and implementation strategy to accomplish your journey from your present to preferred state. While acting on your plans, be sure to document the process, and start developing programs to maintain the goal after you have achieved it in order to avoid the two steps forward one step backShow MoreRelatedCritical Thinking And Self Reflection, Tyson Foods Inc.1000 Words   |  4 PagesThrough critical thinking and self-reflection, Tyson Foods Inc. will be able to uncover the truth claims, weigh the evidence, examine the underlying assumptions or opportunities, and eventually make appropriate decisions to reconstruct their current strategy (Kurucz, Colbert Wheeler, 2013). Critical reflection involves corporations evaluating the relationship between business, society, and the environment that is currently framed in the existing business model as well as introduce opportunitiesRead MoreTransformative Learning Theory : The Importance Of Planetary Consciousness Essay1641 Words   |  7 Pagesrealization, reflection, discourse, and active pursuit of change. This process requires significant effort for the individual and requires deep critical reflection into personal belief systems, inflicted views from childhood, and questioning knowledge. The presented literature explores the origins of transformative learning theory, the importance of a strong planetary context, and further examples of the application of this theory. Keywords: transformative learning theory, reflection, self-reflection, symbolsRead MoreAnalysis : The Beach Essay1745 Words   |  7 Pagesenvironmental sustainability important. Critical Reflection: By implementing measures to protect the natural environment, it ensures that the destination is protected against the ‘tourism curse’ which says â€Å"tourists destroy what they most desire†. DMOs have recognised the importance of sustainability for both the residents and tourists, in which they can ensure the destination continues to meet environmental expectations. Image two – macro-environmental implications: sustainability DescriptionRead MoreProcess Encouraging The Mentee Help Bring Together Their Perceptions, Reasoning, Emotions, And Inclusion905 Words   |  4 PagesMOVING TO SUSTAINABILITY The next step is to embed this process encouraging the mentee to bring together their perceptions, reasoning, emotions and aligning this to their goals. This is itself can pose a trap (Kets de Vries and Korotov 2007) for mentees if they have not integrated a critical learning approach to their complex problem solving situations. If they have not, then the outcome is nothing better than surface learning characterised by double loop learning where they become puzzled and wedgedRead MoreMost Citizen Science Projects Take Place Outdoors Essay996 Words   |  4 Pagesoutdoor education focuses on sustainability and achieving sustainability within a community takes resilience. Social resilience is defined as †the ability of groups or communities to cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political, and environmental change† (Adger 2000, p. 347). Change for sustainability requires the integration of these activities such that the context, content and process of learning reflect the principles of sustainability. This type of learning . .Read MoreReducing The Global Energy Sustainability1110 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Reducing the carbon footprint or lessening the human impact on the earth has only become increasingly popular as societies are now striving towards environmental sustainability. One of the major drivers towards sustainability is to reduce the global dependency on non-renewable resources such as coal, oil, and natural gases. At the current rate in which the world population is expanding, along with the progressively quicker depletion of the world’s non-renewable energy resources, theRead MoreA Reflection Paper On Central Concepts876 Words   |  4 PagesReflection Paper on Central Concepts The world’s most valuable brands are Apple, Microsoft, and Google. Apple is such a globalized icon that within the first quarter of 2014 Apple earned more than Google, Facebook, and Amazon combined. As an Apple iPhone owner I am globally involved through my day to day actions. Apple is a very popular technology that a large amount of the world’s population owns. Owning an iPhone connects me to over millions of people around the globe making us part of globalizationRead MoreStrategic Management, Goals, And Mission1436 Words   |  6 PagesStrategic Management, Goals, and Mission Are Critical To the Success of an Organization Purpose The purpose of this paper is to reflect and make an analysis of the general success of an organization, by the importance of meeting its goals and mission. Provide recommendations based on the SHRM case, PAC Resources, Inc. and thoughts of overall performance to improve in which practices and theories were utilized most effectively. Upon such, draw conclusions and provide an integration of current materialRead MoreThe Impact Of Environmental Sustainability On The Environment Essay721 Words   |  3 Pages Kristina King Soc 327 October 9, 2015 Reflection Paper # 1 If out of the 17 U.N. Millennium Development Goals for 2030 could be achieved, I feel that ensuring environmental sustainability would be most crucial. Environmental sustainability and development is necessary to reduce poverty and increase the wellbeing of not only today’s people, but for future generations.(1) These global environment isssues require a global solution. However inequality between countries creates environmental issuesRead MoreSustainability, Equity And Biodiversity1455 Words   |  6 PagesSustainability literature maintains that people need to be taught about sustainability, equity and biodiversity, and an early education would be most beneficial(Young Moore, 2012). Ecological education begins with a changing of current perceptions and values (Capra, 1996). If perceptions about current world views and beliefs are challenged, a new way of thinking and of living will be free to emerge. Ecologising education need not be difficult. Humanity’s affinity for nature has been well documented

How It Feels to Be Colored Me, by Zora Neale Hurston

Zora Neal Hurston was an author that was widely acclaimed. A genius of the South, novelist, folklorist, anthropologist—those are the words that Alice Walker had inscribed on the tombstone of Zora Neale Hurston. In this personal  essay (first published in The World Tomorrow, May 1928), the acclaimed author of Their Eyes Were Watching God explores her own sense of identity through a series of memorable examples and striking metaphors. As  Sharon L. Jones has observed, Hurstons essay challenges the reader to consider race and ethnicity as fluid, evolving, and dynamic rather than static and unchanging -Critical Companion to Zora Neale Hurston, 2009 How It Feels to Be Colored Me by Zora Neale Hurston 1 I am colored but I offer nothing in the way of extenuating circumstances except the fact that I am the only Negro in the United States whose grandfather on the mothers side was not an Indian chief. 2 I remember the very day that I became colored. Up to my thirteenth year I lived in the little Negro town of Eatonville, Florida. It is exclusively a colored town. The only white people I knew passed through the town going to or coming from Orlando. The native whites rode dusty horses, the Northern tourists chugged down the sandy village road in automobiles. The town knew the Southerners and never stopped cane chewing when they passed. But the Northerners were something else again. They were peered at cautiously from behind curtains by the timid. The more venturesome would come out on the porch to watch them go past and got just as much pleasure out of the tourists as the tourists got out of the village. 3 The front porch might seem a daring place for the rest of the town, but it was a gallery seat for me. My favorite place was atop the gatepost. Proscenium box for a born first-nighter. Not only did I enjoy the show, but I didnt mind the actors knowing that I liked it. I usually spoke to them in passing. Id wave at them and when they returned my salute, I would say something like this: Howdy-do-well-I-thank-you-where-you-goin? Usually, automobile or the horse paused at this, and after a queer exchange of compliments, I would probably go a piece of the way with them, as we say in farthest Florida. If one of my family happened to come to the front in time to see me, of course, negotiations would be rudely broken off. But even so, it is clear that I was the first welcome-to-our-state Floridian, and I hope the Miami Chamber of Commerce will please take notice. 4 During this period, white people differed from colored to me only in that they rode through town and never lived there. They liked to hear me speak pieces and sing and wanted to see me dance the parse-me-la, and gave me generously of their small silver for doing these things, which seemed strange to me for I wanted to do them so much that I needed bribing to stop, only they didnt know it. The colored people gave no dimes. They deplored any joyful tendencies in me, but I was their Zora nevertheless. I belonged to them, to the nearby hotels, to the county—everybodys Zora. 5 But changes came in the family when I was thirteen, and I was sent to school in Jacksonville. I left Eatonville, the town of the oleanders, a Zora. When I disembarked from the riverboat at Jacksonville, she was no more. It seemed that I had suffered a sea change. I was not Zora of Orange County anymore, I was now a little colored girl. I found it out in certain ways. In my heart as well as in the mirror, I became a fast brown—warranted not to rub nor run. 6 But I am not tragically colored. There is no great sorrow dammed up in my soul, nor lurking behind my eyes. I do not mind at all. I do not belong to the sobbing school of Negrohood who hold that nature somehow has given them a lowdown dirty deal and whose feelings are all but about it. Even in the helter-skelter skirmish that is my life, I have seen that the world is to the strong regardless of a little pigmentation more of less. No, I do not weep at the world—I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife. 7 Someone is always at my elbow reminding me that I am the granddaughter of slaves. It fails to register depression with me. Slavery is sixty years in the past. The operation was successful and the patient is doing well, thank you. The terrible struggle that made me an American out of a potential slave said On the line! The Reconstruction said Get set! and the generation before said Go! I am off to a flying start and I must not halt in the stretch to look behind and weep. Slavery is the price I paid for civilization, and the choice was not with me. It is a bully adventure and worth all that I have paid through my ancestors for it. No one on earth ever had a greater chance for glory. The world to be won and nothing to be lost. It is thrilling to think—to know that for any act of mine, I shall get twice as much praise or twice as much blame. It is quite exciting to hold the center of the national stage, with the spectators not knowing whether to laugh or to weep. 8 The position of my white neighbor is much more difficult. No brown specter pulls up a chair beside me when I sit down to eat. No dark ghost thrusts its leg against mine in bed. The game of keeping what one has is never so exciting as the game of getting. 9 I do not always feel colored. Even now I often achieve the unconscious Zora of Eatonville before the Hegira. I feel most colored when I am thrown against a sharp white background. 10 For instance at Barnard. Beside the waters of the Hudson I feel my race. Among the thousand white persons, I am a dark rock surged upon, and overswept, but through it all, I remain myself. When covered by the waters, I am; and the ebb but reveals me again. 11 Sometimes it is the other way around. A white person is set down in our midst, but the contrast is just as sharp for me. For instance, when I sit in the drafty basement that is The New World Cabaret with a white person, my color comes. We enter chatting about any little nothing that we have in common and are seated by the jazz waiters. In the abrupt way that jazz orchestras have, this one plunges into a number. It loses no time in circumlocutions, but gets right down to business. It constricts the thorax and splits the heart with its tempo and narcotic harmonies. This orchestra grows rambunctious, rears on its hind legs and attacks the tonal veil with primitive fury, rending it, clawing it until it breaks through to the jungle beyond. I follow those heathen—follow them exultingly. I dance wildly inside myself; I yell within, I whoop; I shake my assegai above my head, I hurl it true to the mark yeeeeooww! I am in the jungle and living in the jungle way. My face is painted re d and yellow and my body is painted blue. My pulse is throbbing like a war drum. I want to slaughter something—give pain, give death to what, I do not know. But the piece ends. The men of the orchestra wipe their lips and rest their fingers. I creep back slowly to the veneer we call civilization with the last tone and find the white friend sitting motionless in his seat, smoking calmly. 12 Good music they have here, he remarks, drumming the table with his fingertips. 13 Music. The great blobs of purple and red emotion have not touched him. He has only heard what I felt. He is far away and I see him but dimly across the ocean and the continent that have fallen between us. He is so pale with his whiteness then and I am so colored. 14 At certain times I have no race, I am me. When I set my hat at a certain angle and saunter down Seventh Avenue, Harlem City, feeling as snooty as the lions in front of the Forty-Second Street Library, for instance. So far as my feelings are concerned, Peggy Hopkins Joyce on the Boule Mich with her gorgeous raiment, stately carriage, knees knocking together in a most aristocratic manner, has nothing on me. The cosmic Zora emerges. I belong to no race nor time. I am the eternal feminine with its string of beads. 15 I have no separate feeling about being an American citizen and colored. I am merely a fragment of the Great Soul that surges within the boundaries. My country, right or wrong. 16 Sometimes, I feel discriminated against, but it does not make me angry. It merely astonishes me. How can any deny themselves the pleasure of my company? Its beyond me. 17 But in the main, I feel like a brown bag of miscellany propped against a wall. Against a wall in company with other bags, white, red and yellow. Pour out the contents, and there is discovered a jumble of small things priceless and worthless. A first-water diamond, an empty spool, bits of broken glass, lengths of string, a key to a door long since crumbled away, a rusty knife-blade, old shoes saved for a road that never was and never will be, a nail bent under the weight of things too heavy for any nail, a dried flower or two still a little fragrant. In your hand is the brown bag. On the ground before you is the jumble it held—so much like the jumble in the bags, could they be emptied, that all might be dumped in a single heap and the bags refilled without altering the content of any greatly. A bit of colored glass more or less would not matter. Perhaps that is how the Great Stuffer of Bags filled them in the first place—who knows?

Psychology Development in Chine Free Essays

string(46) " Taoism and Zen Buddhism were also important\." History and Systems of psychology PSYC 331 Dr. Bihan Al Qaimari Midterm Paper â€Å"Development of Psychology in China† Name: Ahmad Shiber Student number: 1071843 Introduction: When we started this class, we started learning the history of psychology, its theories, and its development. I couldn’t help but notice that the course curriculum is focused on European and American psychologists and their theories, which gives us a very westernized view of psychology and the nature of humans and their humanity. We will write a custom essay sample on Psychology Development in Chine or any similar topic only for you Order Now Studying psychology from a western point of view also limits the horizons of applying psychology and how it explained since it will be connected to mainly western church ideologies and financial and political systems are in the west like capitalism and democracy. I developed an interest in far eastern cultures four years ago studying the common religions in that region basics of languages spoken there, and I even started studying the Japanese language as a second language. Thus, I was interested of how these cultures saw psychology and compare their psychological thinking with Greek and Islamic psychological thinking and philosophy which was covered in class. I was amazed by the sheer amount of knowledge these cultures had offered in psychology and I was disheartened on how it is almost never mentioned in psychology classes or when mentioned it gets marginalized. Of all the cultures that constitute the Far East, I chose China. In this paper I will discuss the development of psychology in this country from its historical roots till the modern day, along with all the ups and downs of this field. I hope to shed light on the amazing contributions to the psychology field in particular, and to humanity in general. Attachment: a brief description of Chinese culture of well being. The Historical Roots: Modern psychology was brought to China from the West in the late 1800s, but the study and discussion of psychological issues had a long history in ancient China. Read also Memory – Forgetting Early psychological thinking in China not only was contained in diverse philosophical, political, military, and other literature but was also expressed through various practices in education, medicine, and human resource management. The influence of Chinese culture on world psychology has been widely recognized in current literature in the field and is attracting more and more attention (Jing, 1994; Murphy Kovach, 1972; Wang, 1993). In China a rich body of psychological thought existed in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosophers. One of the most important figures was Confucius (551-479 B. C. ) whose teaching has, for centuries, exerted a profound influence on the development of China’s cultural history. Confucian thinking emphasized the discussion of human nature, education, human development, and interpersonal relationships. For example, when Confucius discussed human nature, he asserted that â€Å"human nature is the order of heaven† (Jing, 1994, p. 668). By this Confucius meant that our patterns of existence are determined by Nature or by God. He did not address this issue in order to differentiate whether human nature was good or evil but proposed it as a common heritage upon which personal and mental development could be based through education: â€Å"By nature close to each other, but through practice far from each other† (Analects 17:2, Dawson, 1993). This means that people are similar when they are born but that they become different as a result of social molding; hence the importance of learning. Confucius was a famous teacher as well as a philosopher; he advocated that all people should be educated, irrespective of their abilities. He categorized people into three types: superior, medium, and inferior and concluded that everyone should be educated according to their abilities. These ideas are in agreement with the modern idea of everyone’s right to an education and the concept of individual differences and the need to provide education in a suitable form for all to benefit, whatever their abilities. With regard to human development, Confucius viewed this as a life-long process as stated in the summary of his own life:. At fifteen I set my mind on learning, at thirty I became firm in my purpose; at forty I was free from doubts; at fifty I came to know fate; t sixty I could tell truth from falsehood by listening to other people; at seventy I followed my heart’s desire without trespassing the norm of conduct. (Analects 2:4; Tang, 1996). A distinctive feature of this outlook is an emphasis on the development of wisdom and social maturity at a later age. Contrary to some modern thinking that human deve lopment is primarily an early childhood process (as has been proposed by Freud or Piaget), Confucius gave new insight with the view that development is a life-long process. In addition to Confucianism, other Chinese philosophies such as Taoism and Zen Buddhism were also important. You read "Psychology Development in Chine" in category "Papers" For instance, Chinese Taoist scholars considered that opposition exists everywhere in the universe and that the synthesis of contrary systems operates to form an integrated unity that is a manifestation of the power and operation of the Yang and the Yin, the alternating forces expressive of light and darkness, birth and decay, male and female. These powers, which in their combined operation form the Tao, the Way, the great principle of the universe, are the mainspring of every activity, the mechanism of constant change and balance, which maintains the harmony of the cosmos. (Fitzgerald, 1976, p. 220). According to Lao-tzu (570-490 B. C. ), the reputed founder of Taoism, nature keeps a proper balance in all its working. If any activity moves to an extreme in one direction, sooner or later a change occurs to swing it back toward the opposite. This thinking may have influenced Jungian psychology, for â€Å"Jung discovered the self from Eastern philosophy and characterized it ‘as a kind of compensation for the conflict between inside and outside † (Jung, as cited in Kuo, 1971, p. 97). In addition, recent findings indicate that the self-actualization theories of Rogers and Maslow bear certain similarities to concepts in Taoism and Zen Buddhism (e. . , Chang ; Page, 1991; Ma, 1990). The practice of naive psychology was widespread in ancient China, and many present-day psychology applications could trace their roots to thousands of years ago. For instance, in Medical Principles of the Yellow Emperor, the first Chinese encyclopedia of medicine, published about 2,000 years ago, links between brain pathology a nd psychological problems were described, and a bio-psycho-social model was the main approach to medical and mental treatment (Wang, 1993). Another famous ancient Chinese text, Sun-tzu’s classic book The Art of War, was written 2,500 years ago. It is a treatise on strategies of warfare containing an analysis of human nature, organization, leadership, the effects of the environment, and the importance of information and may have influenced the development of modern organizational psychology. The most important contribution of Chinese culture to the application of psychology is that of mental testing. It is common to think of testing as both a recent and a Western development. The origins of testing, however, are neither recent nor Western. The roots of psychological testing can be traced back to the concepts and practices of ancient China for some 3,000 years (Anastasi, 1988; Kaplan Saccuzzo, 1993). Various methods for measuring talent and behavior were popular, such as observing traits from behavioral changes, identifying intelligence by response speed, eliciting personality across situations, and measuring mental attributes through interviews (Lin, 1980). The purpose of all these tests was to allow the Chinese emperor to assess his officials’ fitness for office. By the time of the Han Dynasty (206 B. C. to A. D. 20), the use of test batteries (two or more tests used in conjunction) was quite common in the civil service examination system (Zhang, 1988) with essay writing and oral exams in topics such as civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography. Tests had become quite well developed by the time of the Ming Dynasty (A. D. 1368-1644). During this period, there was a national multi-stage te sting program that involved local and regional testing centers equipped with special testing booths. Those who did well on the test at the local level went on to the provincial capital for more extensive essay examinations. After this second testing, those with the highest test scores went on to the nation’s capital for a final round of examinations. Only those who passed this third set of tests were eligible for public office. It is probable that the Western world learned about these national testing programs through exposure to the Chinese during the 19th century. Reports by British missionaries and diplomats encouraged the British East India Company to copy the Chinese system in 1832 as a method for selecting employees for overseas duty. Testing programs worked well for the company, and the British government adopted a similar system of testing for its civil service in 1855. Later, French, German, and American governments in succession endorsed it, and the testing movement in the Western world has grown rapidly since then (Kaplan Saccuzzo, 1993). Testing was also well developed in ancient Chinese folk culture. An article written by a scholar, Yen (531-590), indicated that, the so-called â€Å"testing the child at one year of age† was a popular custom in southern China. On a child’s first birthday, he/she would be placed on a large table full of food, clothing, paper, pens, jewelry, toys, books with, in addition, an arrow and sword for the boys, and needle and thread for the girls. The baby was encouraged to crawl freely and pick up the item he or she liked best. By observing what the baby grasped first, the proud parents projected the baby’s intelligence, personality characteristics and aptitude by the things taken from the table. This custom lasted until the 20th Century. (Zhang, 1988, p. 02). Although clearly not a test by modern standards, it does illustrate a willingness to assess individual differences by concrete means. Zhang (1988) also noted that Lin Xie, a well-known 6th century scholar, designed what appeared to be the first experimental psychological test in the world. He asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other. His aim was to show that, with interference from the attemp t to do the second task, neither task could be done correctly. Interestingly, Binet in the 1890s developed a similar test as part of the early psychological work on the effect of distraction (internal and external) on mental tasks (Pillsbury, 1929; Woodworth Marquis, 1949). Binet may have been aware of the Chinese history. This review is only a brief discussion of the historical background of Chinese psychology. However, psychology in China did not develop into a systematic discipline, despite the fact that the concepts of psychology have deep roots in Chinese civilization dating back almost 2,500 years. Furthermore, few empirical studies have been done in this area of knowledge in China, compared with studies done in the Western world. Thus, Chinese psychology has lacked a scientific basis because of the belief that Chinese scholars should only concern themselves with â€Å"book learning, literature, history and poetry–but not with science† (Fitzgerald, 1976, p. 274). When Chinese intellectuals began the reform movement in the early 1900s, they promoted an uncompromising rejection of Chinese traditions (especially those with Confucian roots) and advocated total or whole-hearted Westernization, in terms of science. Chinese psychology became a graft product of Western and Soviet psychology (Barabanshchikova Koltsova, 1989). Early Chinese psychologists had adopted the Western ideas of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and gestalt psychology, and the works of Pavlov, Bekhterev, and Komilov were translated from the Russian. Nowadays, however, more and more scholars taking the cross-cultural view of psychology (e. g. , Matsumoto, 2000) have realized that it is not appropriate simply to apply Western theories to explain the behavior of the Chinese or any other cultural group. Although the collection process has not been fully carried out, some Chinese psychologists (such as Gao, 1986) have started their exploration of the old studies and literature to search for the roots of Chinese psychology. Those valuable assets of the old civilization, when thoroughly explored, may give us new insights into the understanding of contemporary psychology. For example, researchers are studying early writings on traditional Chinese medicine and translating their conclusions into testable hypotheses of therapeutic effectiveness (Lee Hu, 1993; Li, Xu, Kuang, 1988; Tseng, 1973). This kind of work is also significant in cross-cultural studies and has particular relevance in the Chinese context. Development of Modern Chinese Psychology: Chinese psychology began a long time ago, but the modern scientific method is only recent. However, the era of modern Chinese psychology commenced in the late 1800s with the dissemination of Western psychology in China along with other Western influences. Chinese students who had studied in the West brought back ideas fundamental to modern psychology and translated Western books. In 1889, Yan Yongjing translated a Japanese version of Joseph Haven’s Mental Philosophy (1875), which was regarded as the first Western psychology book to be published in China (Kodama, 1991). Psychology as an independent scientific discipline was first taught in some Chinese pedagogical institutions at the turn of this century. The Chinese educational reformer, Cai Yuanpei, who studied psychology at Wilhelm Wundt’s Laboratory in Leipzig and who later became president of Beijing University, set up the first psychology laboratory at Beijing University in 1917 (Jing, 1994). In 1920, the first psychology department was established in South Eastern University in Nanjing (Li, 1994). In August 1921, the Chinese Psychological Society was formally founded. Unfortunately, its activities were interrupted by the Sino-Japanese war. Meanwhile, some Chinese scholars finished their studies in Western universities and returned to China to teach and do research in psychology. They played important roles in laying the foundation for the development of modern Chinese psychology. One of the most widely known Chinese psychologists from that period was R. Y. Kuo, who went to the University of California at Berkeley in 1918 and returned to China in 1929. As a behaviorist, his major contributions were in the field of the developmental analysis of animal behavior and the nervous system (Brown, 1981). Another influential figure was P. L. Chen, known as the founder of Chinese industrial psychology, who carried out field studies in Chinese factories after studying under Charles Spearman of University College London. Later, Chen’s study on the G factor was translated and noted as an achievement in the developing understanding of intelligence (Wang, 1993). Another was S. Pan, who obtained his Ph. D. in Chicago in 1927, having worked with Carr on the influence of context on learning and memory. He later became president of the Chinese Psychological Society when it was re-established in 1955 after the People’s Republic of China was founded. In short, from the 1920s through the 1940s, Chinese psychology was oriented mainly toward Western psychology and in fact was not different from the latter. Experimental approaches were emphasized, and Chinese psychologists were strongly influenced by the schools of functionalism, behaviorism, and the Freudians. Psychology was basically an imported product whose general development was slow because of the unstable social environment in China during this period. After the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949, psychology was reestablished under the auspices of the Communist Party. The new psychology took Marxism-Leninism and Mao’s thought as the basic philosophy underlying its psychological theory. For instance, Marxism’s materialist dialectics saw psychology (apart from experimental psychology) as entirely hypothetical and, therefore, not materialist and not permitted. Although the Western psychology of the 1930s was well known, it was rejected after 1949 because of its capitalist nature. Chinese psychology during the mentioned time period was guided by the slogan â€Å"Learn from the Soviet Psychology† (Barabanshchikova ; Koltsova, 1989, p. 118), and books by Soviet psychologists (Pavlov, Luria, Sechenov, etc. ) were translated into Chinese; Chinese students and postgraduates began to study in Russia rather than in the United States (Barabanshchikova ; Koltsova). Soviet psychology focused on the relationship between psychology nd the workings of the central nervous system, especially as shown in the work of Pavlov with animals, whereas Western psychology with its emphasis on individual differences was seen as a â€Å"tool of the bourgeoisie,† which contradicted the Marxist doctrine that states that people are primarily shaped by their social class. Jing (1994) noted that as in the Soviet Union in the 1940s and in 1950s, there were no independent departments of psychology in Chinese universities. Psychology was a secondary discipline in the departments of philosophy or education. It was only 30 years later, after the Chinese Cultural Revolution, that independent departments of psychology were reestablished in Chinese universities). (p. 670). Psychology had a preliminary development in the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1958, the Institute of Psychology was set up as a part of the Chinese Academy of Science, where, because it was classified as a science, its funding was more favorable than that of other social sciences. About half of the 3,000 Chinese psychologists then worked in normal universities or pedagogical institutes in the fields of developmental and educational psychology (Jing, 1994). Some basic psychological studies were also carried out on perception, conceptual development, memory, and physiological psychology. The publication of three important Chinese textbooks in the early 1960s reflected a significant development of teaching and research during that period: general psychology (Cao, 1963), educational psychology (Pan, 1964), and child psychology (Zhu, 1962). However, the development of psychology was not smooth because of the ebb and flow of political movements. Even though it is a science, psychology could be construed as an ideology and hence a threat to the doctrine promulgated by the ruling regime or by influential segments of society,† noted Leung and Zhang (1995, p. 694). Jing (1994) gave an explanation for this statement. He described the 1958 campaign against the â€Å"bourgeois direction in psychology† that criticized the â€Å"globalization† and â€Å"abstractionism† of psychology. This criticism was aimed at basic resear ch with controlled experiments. In China, confounding political matters with academic ones led to the suppression of certain subfields in psychology. For example, social psychology and psychological testing were abolished â€Å"on the grounds that the former ignored the class nature of social groups, and the latter stressed too heavily individual differences rather than social differences† (Jing, 1994, p. 671). The only social psychology articles then published were criticisms of the bourgeois and idealist values of Western psychology. As Brown (1983) noted, Western theories were viewed as a tool for exploiting the working class and a false bourgeois science, which contradicted the Marxist framework of historical materialism. Kuo (1971) gave some interesting examples of how Western-style psychological research was seen to be politically dominated. For example, Kretch and Crutchfield’s proposed social psychology program for factory managers to help eliminate conflict between workers and factory owners was described as actually intended â€Å"to iron out the class struggle, to diminish the proletarian’s fighting will for revolution, and to sacrifice the proletarian basic profits in order to meet the need of capitalists† (p. 100). For these reasons, between 1966 and 1976, during the period of the Cultural Revolution, psychology was attacked by the extreme leftist revolutionaries as a â€Å"bourgeois pseudo-science† and was uprooted completely as a scientific discipline. Leading psychologists were labelled as â€Å"reactionary academic authorities,† scientific research and teaching institutions were dissolved, and psychologists were dispatched to remote areas of the country to work on the farms. The disaster lasted until the termination of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. (Jing, 1994, p. 72). In a later article (1995) Jing commented that this was a â€Å"dark period† for psychology in China and lamented the â€Å"great price to be paid for political interference in science† (p. 719). Happily, Chinese economic reform launched an open-door policy to the outside world in the late 1970s, and psychology was rehabilitated as a scientific discipline. Both the Chinese Psychological Society ( CPS) and Institute of Psychology have resumed their academic activities; research in, and application of, psychology is being carried out all over China. With increased international exchanges, new ideas and areas of research such as cognitive psychology and counseling psychology have become popular. For example major cities now have counseling telephone hot lines (Xu, Guo, Fang, Yan, 1994), many high schools have their own counselors, and cognitive behavior therapy is a popular new approach to psychiatric problems. Chinese counseling models have to adapt to the characteristics of Chinese clients and counselors (Wang, 1994). Many Chinese psychologists visited other countries, and psychologists from abroad visited China and lectured in China’s universities. Thus began a more favorable environment for the present development of Chinese psychology. Wang (1993) gave a good picture of the current scene: By 1991, the CPS had more than 2,900 members, two thirds of whom were developmental and educational psychologists. The CPS has 11 special divisions of psychology, including educational, developmental, medical, general-experimental, industrial, sports, physiological, judicial psychology, and psychological measurement. Each province has its own psychological association such as counseling (Wang, 1993, p. 92). Because psychology restored its momentum in the late 1970s, Chinese psychologists have reached a consensus on building psychology with Chinese characteristics (Chen, 1993; Shi, 1989). Yue (1994) reflected on the need for Chinese psychologists to strengthen their theoretical roots and bind their work closely to life in China. Wang (1993) concluded that much recent Chinese psychological research has been closely linked with economic and social reform, technological developments, and applications of psychology (e. g. , the design of Chinese language computers, the effects of the single-child policy). Bond (1996) and the Chinese Culture Connection (1987) noted that Chinese society is still shaped by Confucian values such as filial piety and industriousness, the saving of face, and the networks of personal relationships. Even in 1922, Chinese psychologists were exhorted to unearth existing Chinese materials, investigate new materials from overseas, and based on these two sources, invent our own theories and experiments †¦ the content must be appropriate to the national situation, and the form, must insofar as is possible, be of a Chinese nature. Jing ; Fu, 1995, p. 723). In experimental psychology, the Chinese language with its ideographic characters has become a subject of great interest (see Bond, 1986, for some examples). Extensive studies are being carried out in this field, including ideographic and sound characteristics of Chinese characters; the relationship between Chinese languages and Western languages; the hemispheric laterality of information processing of the Chin ese language; and reading and comprehension of the Chinese language. Because of the importance of the application of these studies to school education, artificial intelligence, and industrial technology, many Chinese psychologists are collaborating in their research efforts in the hope of finding some answers, such as how to simplify the typing of Chinese characters on computers (Tan ; Peng, 1991; Yu, Feng, ; Cao, 1990; Zhang ; Shu, 1989; Zhang, Zhang, ; Peng, 1990). Developmental psychology is another area of intensive study. There are 300 million children in China, and any new knowledge acquired in the field would have important implications for the education of this next generation (Jing, 1994). For example, Mei (1991) demonstrated that the remote rural minority people’s tradition of keeping their babies propped up in sandbags for most of their first 6 months resulted in lower IQ scores up to the age of 16. Much has been published on concept development, language development, the development of thinking, personality, and moral development, gifted children, and slow learners (see Dong, 1989; Liu, 1982; Zhu Lin, 1986). These findings have been applied to improve the teaching and testing of children, such as the development of the standardized Higher Education Entrance Examination. In addition, since the national family planning and birth control program was implemented in the mid-1980s the characteristics of the only-child policy have been a hot topic (Chen, 1985; Falbo Poston, 1993; Jing, 1995). For example, Ying and Zhang (1992) found that rural Chinese still expected their children rather than the government to support them in their old age. This will clearly be a burden on a single child with four dependent grandparents. Psychologists are concerned with the school achievement and social development of these only children as well as the social psychological effects and personality problems that may be encountered in the future. Within this area, cross-cultural psychology studies among China’s minority groups offer an important new prospect (Hong ; Wang, 1994; Xie, Zhang, Yu, ; Jui, 1993). In the field of medical and clinical psychology, besides the introduction of Western psychotherapeutic methods (behavior modification, group therapy, psychoanalysis, etc. ), the demonstration of the effectiveness of some traditional Chinese medical treatments (e. . , acupuncture, see Ng, 1999a) and therapies (e. g. , qigong ; taichi, see Ng, 1999b) has been a significant development (San, 1990; Sun, 1984; Wang, 1979). Moreover, many psychologists are also involved in the process of modernization in industrial, military, and educational areas, playing important roles in policy making. For example, psychometrici ans helped to initiate the standardization of college entrance examinations. In personnel selection for the Air Force, psychologists are widely consulted and are actively participating in the design of selection procedures (Hao, Zhang, Zhang, ; Wang 1996). Industrial psychologists also make their contribution to the establishment of color standards of industrial illumination as well as to the developments of signs and symbols for technical products. The role of psychology has become increasingly prominent in China’s rapid modernization and economic and social development. Disadvantageous Factors that May Impede the Development of Psychology: Although psychology is recognized by the Chinese government and is enjoying apparent prosperity at the moment, its future status is questionable. The development of psychology is contingent on economic growth. Compared with the other natural sciences (such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry), the development of psychology depends especially on the resources and prevailing intellectual practices of that country. It was reported in the mid-1980s that there were well over 60,000 psychologists who belonged to the American Psychological Association (Mays, Rubin, Sabourin, Walker, 1996), whereas there were fewer than 3,000 registered members in the Chinese Psychological Society by 1991 (Wang, 1993). The ratio of psychologists to the general population is higher in developed countries than in developing countries. China has fewer than 2 psychologists for every million people (Jing Fu, 1995). A developing country has to provide for its people’s basic needs–food, shelter, health–before it can afford to provide for their â€Å"higher† psychological needs. When a country is underdeveloped, the more important problems of developing industry, commerce, and agriculture receive more attention because of the need to improve basic living conditions for everyone. In China today, with its economic pressures and its huge population problem, the further development of psychology cannot be seen as a top national priority. However, the Chinese government has begun to recognize that economic progress ultimately depends on the talents of the managers and workers and now sees the value of investing in modern management selection and training (e. g. , the setting up in 1999 of the Beijing Senior Management Selection Centre; personal communication, Gu Xiang Dong, January, 1999). Because the Chinese Government employs almost all the psychologists in the country, the future of the profession depends n its support (Jing ; Fu, 1995). In practical terms, lack of funding in developing countries means that psychologists cannot afford to attend international conferences, buy expensive books and journals, or experiment with highly technical equipment. Jing and Fu noted,. As China’s market-oriented reform continues, people in academic circles are adjustin g their ways of making a living. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the main organizational body of scientific research in China, started its reform in the middle 1980s to satisfy the market need for applied technology. p. 721). In 1993, the CAS elected to move 70% of its staff into research related to economic development and thus more than 50,000 people began to conduct research in areas relevant to the market economy (Wang, 1995). It is also known that a further 10,000 of the original CAS staff have become businessmen or managers as a result of the expansion of private business enterprises (Jing Fu, 1995). Budgetary difficulties are a more immediate problem for reform. In developed countries, psychology can rely on private funding. For example, the ratio of private to government funding in the United States was as high as 1 to 10 in 1990 (see Rosenzweig, 1992), whereas in China there is little private funding to which psychologists can turn. If such funding does exist, psychology is rarely on the list for support. The lack of funding for research has had an adverse impact on basic research. In an analysis of 2,274 studies between 1979 and 1988 in developmental and educational psychology involving 362,665 participants, Shi (1990) found that 48. 9% of the studies were applied research whereas only 8% were described as basic research. The rest were more or less repetitions or adaptations of previous studies or instruments. ) Psychologists in China are predominantly concerned with applied problems, and research that addresses economic and social problems. This situation was aptly described by Long (1987): â€Å"The pressing need †¦ was a technocrat in a factory, not a rat in a Skinner box† (p. 232). An applied orientation is understandable in the light of the heavy emphasis placed on economic development. It may be expected that psychology will play an important role in the attainment of China’s present goal to modernize industry, agriculture, science, and technology. The main problems for Chinese psychologists are how to help the nation accomplish these important tasks with minimal funding and lack of facilities (Jing ; Fu, 1995). The development of psychology is based on having a sufficient number of people with advanced training, and universities are the main source of training for psychologists. Bachelor degree courses in psychology are similar to those in the United States, but Chinese lecturers have far heavier teaching commitments than their Western counterparts, and they are often required to teach topics well outside their specialist areas. The lack of educational funding also limits access to leading journals and books in the field. Universities in China can afford to subscribe to only a few American and European journals, and most newly published English language books are not available in the library or if they are, their use may be restricted. Thus â€Å"psychological knowledge transmitted to China falls behind the times and is less sophisticated than that in the West† (Jing ; Fu, 1995, p. 725). At present, there are only six psychology departments and four psychology institutions among all the institutions of higher education, although all normal universities and teachers’ colleges have psychology curricula and established psychology teaching and research groups. This provision is clearly inadequate for future needs. In addition, students often teach in the universities in which they received their degree, leading to a restricted perspective of the discipline. To a certain extent, China must depend on the developed world for the training of its psychologists (Jing Fu, 1995). This dependence comes through the importation of foreign experts as well as the training abroad of Chinese psychologists at the postgraduate level and the subsequent brain drain, as many of the latter do not return to China. Another serious problem affecting the development of psychology is that there are no specific career paths for students who major in psychology. There is no organized postgraduate professional psychology training, and psychology graduates are often trapped in low-income jobs. Thus, uncertain career prospects have turned away many talented students. Unfortunately many students who chose psychology as a major have turned to unrelated professions on graduation. Future Perspective The field of psychology has a long road to travel before it will reach its maturity in China. Despite the difficulties mentioned here, recent developments have revealed some directions for the future. As we have seen, the development of Chinese psychology is closely linked with the social environment and with government policy, such as the influence of the family planning program and the open door policy. This link will continue and will orient most psychological research toward practical applications. Given the poor resources in research and the limited number of psychologists, the nationwide and collaborative approach will greatly facilitate research, teaching, and the practical application of psychology. Chinese psychology has attracted tremendous interest from all over the world in recent years. The reason for this sinophilia (Leung Zhang, 1995, p. 696) â€Å"is because of the increasing importance of China world-wide, both politically and economically. † In the next few years, more emphasis will be put on the mutual communication and exchange of ideas with the rest of the world. Chinese psychology will certainly benefit from learning from Western advanced psychology. 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Freedom comes from within yourself Essay Example For Students

Freedom comes from within yourself Essay Freedom in the Hindu CultureOver the past three years in America we have been bombarded with the word freedom as a call to action or a word to persuade us to follow a specific view. Although our society was born on freedom as an idea, its meaning has been used in many ways. Hinduism is also a religion and a culture that places a lot of meaning on freedom but they give a different meaning to it. From learning about Hindu culture in this class their focus on it follows suit as does our version. While our freedom is an idea that can be used in many different ways the Hindu Freedom is a more pure idea as it seems the rest of the culture is. In the Eastern culture freedom comes along with a level or state that you have reached in your life. To understand the meaning of freedom you also have to understand its relation to words like Samsara, Avidya, Maya and Moksha. These are all part of the journey towards the Hindu concept of freedom. Samsara is important in defining freedom in Hindu term s because it is what you want freedom from. Samsara is the continuous cycle of life that takes place in the material world. It is thought of as a negative because it keeps us from moving on and up spiritually. Maya is a concept in Hinduism that relates to man disillusioning himself. The idea is that there is no such thing as an individual existence. When a person is trying to better their standing or wealth they are disillusioning themselves. In the Eastern culture you do not work harder to better yourself you work harder to better the world as a whole through your actions in life. This brings you closer to unity with the Divine.Avidya is similar to Maya. It is when the man is disillusioning himself that Avidya describes. When he denies his true Self and moves farther away from knowledge he is not taking care of his soul. Avidya is a product of the soul as well as a part of the soul. A person can always move away from this and make his soul healthy again by seeking truth and trying to reach the higher levels of spirituality. In the final stage of life we see Moksha come into play. After freeing yourself from material ties in the third stage of life you move on to the fourth and last. This stage is called north and is a withdrawal from the world around you. Freedom comes from this isolation of yourself from the world around you and the responsibility that comes with it. The ultimate goal in Hinduism is Realization (of self) and I think that when this is reached so is freedom. It would be the ultimate freedom in Hindu terms. With Brahman we also attain Moksha which is Hindu for liberation or freedom. Reaching Moksha means you have broken the life cycle that takes place in the physical world. The ultimate aim of human life is Moksha, liberation from sorrow and desire and realization of the union of the spirit and a higher level of existence; the ultimate freedom. Freedom comes from within yourself, in the Hindu culture you live your life looking for freedom. This goes back to the idea that you cannot have freedom without options. The options that are given to people everyday are what brings a person closer or farther from freedom. This is along the same lines as Karma. Karma is your scoreboard that measures how positive or negative your energy is. The better it is the better off you will be after this life. .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .postImageUrl , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:hover , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:visited , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:active { border:0!important; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:active , .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37 .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1452a9ccdb3513e08da4d4fdd8c24c37:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: How Does the Brain Perceive EssayEven though your body may be active on the outside on the inside you can be inactive and not connected to the material world. For example, you can be in a bustling, noisy crowded environment but in your mind not be exposed to any of the outside world through any of your senses. Freedom is more spiritual than it is in the West. For example the Hindu version of a priest is in pursuit of freedom. The Sadhus do this by choosing to remove themselves from the material things in life. Our priests similarly take a vow of poverty but with a different logic behind it. Another part of freedom is the sovereignty that is so important to self which gives freedom of thought a very important place in their society. You can even see this in the deliberate non uniformity of their religious customs. Hindus also believe in freedom on another level. In Western Cultures there is fate which is predetermined and inflexible. The thought of Eastern cultures is that you can always improve their version of fate, which is Karma. You have the freedom to change your path by acting as a better person. This again goes back to the idea that having options go hand in hand with freedom and the journey towards it. Freedom is not necessarily just being able to walk where you please or going to bed when you want. It is like many other ideas in Eastern beliefs. Freedom is in your mind; being free of your material desires and other emotions. Hinduism is known for its universal view and its readiness to recognize and celebrate various practices, customs and beliefs. This general acceptance of all things and beliefs is what has set Hinduism apart from other religions over the years. It has also ensured its survival for years to come. How can somebody create an opposing viewpoint when it is likely that their beliefs would be accepted by Hinduism as well? It reminds me of the old saying about how the rigid tree will crack and fall under pressure from the wind but the tree that sways and bends will stay standing. Hinduism will sway with the changes that time brings. According to one Hindu belief a human has three parts. We see a similar idea in Western culture when we talk about mind, body and soul. There is the physical body, then the subtle body which is like our mind; and part below that, called the causal body, this would be our soul. It is where our true nature can be found. Like in our culture, the physical body is left behind and we pass on to the next life in mind and soul. We would probably say our spirit has moved on. As you can see, freedom in Hindu culture is defined differently then the way we define it. While in America it is just another word in the East it is a journey and a part of the destination of life. Along the journey you will encounter distractions that will bring you down the road towards Maya and Avidya. These things are a result of the concept of Samsara; which is the cycle of life and death. In the end though, all people should be striving towards Moksha. This is part of the ultimate goal in life of being free of the material world.